Lessons in Chemistry

 The Gibbs Phase Rule That there is a definite relationship in a system between the number of degrees of freedom, the number of components and the number of phases present was first established by J. Willard Gibbs in 1876. This relation, known as the phase rule, is a principle of the widest generality, and its validity is in no way dependent on any concepts of the atomic or molecular constitution. Credit is due to Ostwald, Roozeboom, Van't Hoff, and others for showing how this generalization can be 'utilized in the study of problems in heterogeneous equilibrium.  To arrive at a formulation of the phase rule, consider in general a system of C components in which P phases are present. The problem now is to determine the total number of variables upon which such a system depends. First, the state of the system will depend upon the pressure and the temperature. Again, in order to define the composition of each phase, it is necessary to specify the concentration of (C-1) constitu...

Mesopotamia Civilization  Mesopotamia is a region in southwest Asia that is a testament to the evolution of human civilization between the ancient rivers Tigris ( River Dajla) and Euphrates( River Farat). The region looks very developed due to its excellent climate and geography. There are traces of many such inventions due to the development of this period. ۔ These include math, maps, sailing boats, the concept of time, and the wheel. this was located in the Middle East. The region consisted of the Eastern Mediterranean and many countries in Southwest Asia. It is also a Cradle of Civilization, Mesopotamia consists of two words, meso , and potamos meaning middle and river respectively. The human beings for the first time in Mesopotamia of the Paleolithic era (14,000 BC) , get settled in houses that came out from the caves.  the people of this era are known as Babylonians. The inhabitants of the region lived in small colonies with circular houses. 5,000 years later, these hou...

Stone Age The stone age is a very large prehistoric duration, in which we see most of tools and weapons were made up of organic material ( plant and animals ) and stone. History of Stone Age  The stone age started out approximately 2.6 million years in the past and lasted for more or less 3.4 million years and ended between ( 4000 BCE) and (2000 BCE). while the Bronze Age started out.  Why is it known as the Stone Age?  The Stone Age was called due to the fact that most human-made things were of stone such as flint (a type of stone ), for weapons, and tools. For lightning firestone was used. Humans lived in caves so they were called cavemen. These stone equipment are the earliest recognized human equipment.  How did become life in the Stone Age?  Stone Age people had two important concerns - meals and safe haven.  People in this stone age were dependent on hunter-gathering for food  This method was that they both hunted the meals they wanted or collec...

Particle in a one-dimensional box Consider a particle when it is constrained to move in a rectangular box of dimensions a, b, and c in length. Within the box, i.e., between x = 0 and a, y = 0 also b,  z, c = 0 the potential energy is zero, but at the boundaries, it increases suddenly to infinity and remains everywhere outside the box at this value. If we represent U now as the sum of its components along the three coordinate axes, namely,   U = U x +U y +U z       .....(1) then, by proceeding in the same manner as above, it is feasible to isolate the Schrödinger condition into three differential equations of the structure for every one of the factors.   ....(2) Arrangement of Eq. (2) yields between x = 0 and x= a the eigenfunctions obtained are     .......(3)    and the eigenvalues for the energies   E x =n x 2 h 2 /8ma 2 ……... (4) where n x is a quantum number taking on the value n x =1,2,3 etc. similarly the other differe...